| Nama Pengarang | : | - |
| Nama Majalah/Jurnal | : | The World Bank Research Observer |
| Volume / Nomor Edisi | : | - |
| Nomor Halaman | : | 241-254 |
| Abstraksi Narasi | : | - |
| Nama Pengarang | : | Klaus Schmidt-Hebbel, William Easterly, Summers, Lawrence H., Vinod Thomas, Douglas F. Barnes et al, Thomas Glaessner, J. Luis Guasch, Fabrizio Coricelli, Timothy D. Lane, Haggard, Stephan, Steven B. Webb |
| Nama Majalah/Jurnal | : | The World Bank Research Observer |
| Volume / Nomor Edisi | : | - |
| Nomor Halaman | : | 211-237 |
| Abstraksi Narasi | : | Although fiscal adjustment was urged on developing countries during the 1980s to lead them out of economic malaise, considerable uncertainty remains about the relations between fiscal policy and macroeconomic performance. To ilustrate how financial markets, private spending, and the external sector react to fiscal policies, the behavior of holdings of money and public debt, private consumption and investment, the trade balance, and the real exchange rate is modeled for a sample of ten developing countries. The studies find strong evidence that over the medium terms, money financing of the deficit leads to higher inflation, while debt financing leads to higher real interest rates or increased repression of financial markets, with the fiscal gains coming at increasingly unfavorable terms. Consumers respond differently to conventional taxes, unconventional taxes (trhough inflation or interest and credit controls), and debt financing, in ways that make fiscal adjustment the most effective means of increasing national saving. Private investment-but not private consumption-is sensitive to the real interest rate, which rises under domestic borrowing to finance the deficit. Contrary to the popular presumption, in some countries private investment increases when public investment decreases. There is strong evidence that fiscal defisits spill over into external defisits, leading to appreciation of the real exchange rate. Fiscal deficits and growth are self-reinforcing: good fiscal management preserves access to foreign lending and avoids the crowding out of private investment, while growth stabilizes the budged and improves the fiscal position. The virtuous circle of growth and good fiscal management is one of the strongest arguments for a policy of low and stable fiscal deficits. |
| Nama Pengarang | : | - |
| Nama Majalah/Jurnal | : | The World Bank Research Observer |
| Volume / Nomor Edisi | : | - |
| Nomor Halaman | : | 1-22 |
| Abstraksi Narasi | : | Ideally, in devising and assessing policies to control disease, the rules and reasoning of economics should be combined with comprehensive epidemiological information to arrive at the best decisions. Simple economic concepts can be of great practical assistance to policymakers in disease control. This article describes the economic principles to be applied and the kind of information needed to make informed choices about the options for controlling malaria. In this context, the article surveys the research on the costs that malaria imposes on people and economies, discusses how to assess the costs and effects of interventions used to combat the problem, and identifies the conceptual difficulties and gaps in information that must be bridged before the marriage of the two disciplines can be effectively consummated. |
| Nama Pengarang | : | - |
| Nama Majalah/Jurnal | : | The World Bank Research Observer |
| Volume / Nomor Edisi | : | - |
| Nomor Halaman | : | 47-70 |
| Abstraksi Narasi | : | Improving the adequacy and quality of water supplies is a priority for rural development in developing countries. So far, the strategies of governments and international donors for tackling the problem have been supply-driven; the fundamental importance of demand in the selection of appropriate policies has been virtually ignored. The realization that effective policy and planning must take into account what the rural clients want and are prepared to pay for was the impetus for the World Bank`s multicountry study of households demand for improved water services. This article summarizes the findings of the 1987-90 investigation of determinants of rural demand in selected regions of Latin America, Africa, and South Asia. The research team used both direct (contingent valuation) surveys and indirect (revealed preference) methods to estimate households` willingness to pay for different levels and types of improvement. The methodology produced some illuminating insights into how to decide what level of service is appropriate for a particular community and how the improved services should be paid for. The team identified four broad categories of village situations, with appropriate policies ranging from the provision of house connections at full cost at one extreme, to no improvement in traditional supplies at the other extreme. |
| Nama Pengarang | : | - |
| Nama Majalah/Jurnal | : | The World Bank Research Observer |
| Volume / Nomor Edisi | : | - |
| Nomor Halaman | : | 71-90 |
| Abstraksi Narasi | : | Governments and universities have trouble reconciling the goal of keeping higher education widely accessible with the need to retrieve some of its costs from students. Student loans offer a plausible solution to the problem. But loan programs turn out in practice to have been a disappointing instrument of cost recovery: analysis of twenty-three programs found that students repay only a small portion of the value of the original loan. Subsidies, high default rates, and high administrative costs have eroded the value of repayments. Sometimes loan programs have proved as expensive as outright grants. This article argues that most loan programs could be reformed to improve financial effectiveness-through targeting, charging positive real interest rates, designing repayment plans to take account of the likely pattern of graduate earnings, and ensuring that the oversight institutions can and will collect. Or governments could explore alternative devices for cost recovery, such as a graduate tax. This approach levies a higher income tax rate on beneficiaries of government-subsidized higher education and thus preserves the idea, implicit in loan programs, of paying for education with future earnings. As part of an effective tax system, a graduate tax could bring in significantly more revenue than traditional loan programs. |
| Nama Pengarang | : | - |
| Nama Majalah/Jurnal | : | The World Bank Research Observer |
| Volume / Nomor Edisi | : | - |
| Nomor Halaman | : | 23-45 |
| Abstraksi Narasi | : | More than US $1.6 billion is spent annually on 104 programs in nineteen Latin American and Caribbean countries to subsidize or provide food for people supposedly at risk of malnutrition. This amount constitutes only 0.2 percent of these countries` gross national product. If there is no double-counting, these programs reach more than 80 million people, or 21 percent of the population, at a cost of $ 20 per beneficiary or $ 4 per capita. Yet some 10 million children are malnourished, which suggest that the expenditures are poorly directed or ineffective. There is little hard evidence that these programs are preventing much malnutrition; even curative result are seldom measured.The effort is too small in some countries with great needs, while other countries have nearly elimited malnutrition. Where coverage is high, programs-although generally targeted and with sensible criteria-do not always reach the needist. They may also fail to provide enough food or to combine food with the health care and nutritional education necessary to attack all three root causes of malnutrition: poverty, disease, and ignorance. The evidence, limited mostly to program inputs rather than result, suggest that greater progress againts undernourishment is possible even with current spending levels. |
| Nama Pengarang | : | Claessens, Stijn , Musgrove, Philip, Douglas Albrecth, Adrian Ziderman, The World Bank Water Demand Research Team, Jeffrey S. Hammer |
| Nama Majalah/Jurnal | : | The World Bank Research Observer |
| Volume / Nomor Edisi | : | - |
| Nomor Halaman | : | 91-117 |
| Abstraksi Narasi | : | For many developing countries, alternative forms of external finance-all forms of finance that are not guaranteed by or mediated through the public sector-have become increasingly important as traditional financing to the public sector has ebbed. Yet a survey of the literature reveals few recent analytical insights about alternative financing, which includes foreign direct investment, project lending, portfolio investment, closed-end equity funds, private nonguaranteed debt, licensing, joint ventures, quasi-equity contracts, and other forms of private, nonrecourse lending to private borrowers. The literature offers little solid quidance for distinguishing between alternative and traditional financing with respect to country risk, for establishing the most appropriate and efficient incentive structures and restrictions in the host country, or for identifying the optimal financing modes for international firms investing in developing countries. This gap in the analytical literature has important implications for policy formulation. It is not always clear whether a country is developing incentives and establishing safeguards (for ensuring adherence to project performance requirments) that are most effective in attracting alternative forms of finance. |
| Nama Pengarang | : | - |
| Nama Majalah/Jurnal | : | The World Bank Research Observer |
| Volume / Nomor Edisi | : | - |
| Nomor Halaman | : | 195-218 |
| Abstraksi Narasi | : | Tariff reduction designed to encourage outward-oriented development will work only if alternative source can be found to replenish revenue lost in the cause of reducing protection. Integrated reform of tariffs with taxes would seem to be the answer, but so far analysts have often tended to treat the two instruments separately. This article looks at the tariff and tax instruments used by developing countries to protect their producers and to increase their revenues, and then lays out the contours of an integrated structure for taxes with tariffs. This structure takes into account not only objectives of efficiency and equity but also constrained administrative capacity. The analysis concludes with an examination of how these ideas may be used to guide the coordinated reform of tax and tariff structures. |
| Nama Pengarang | : | - |
| Nama Majalah/Jurnal | : | The World Bank Research Observer |
| Volume / Nomor Edisi | : | - |
| Nomor Halaman | : | 145-169 |
| Abstraksi Narasi | : | What are appropriate strategies for protecting the environment in developing countries that also seek to promote growth and reduce poverty? This article reviews the literature cost-effective intervention, comparing regulatory and fiscal instruments that can be attuned to the purpose of reducing pollution. The authors look at what happens when developing country ingredients are introduced into the standard policy problem, and show how indirect instruments can be effective when monitoring and enforcement are costly. They discuss distributive concerns for two reasons: the effect on the poor may need particular consideration for equity reasons, and the effect on groups with vested interests can determine whether reforms are likely to stand or fall. |
| Nama Pengarang | : | - |
| Nama Majalah/Jurnal | : | The World Bank Research Observer |
| Volume / Nomor Edisi | : | - |
| Nomor Halaman | : | 121-143 |
| Abstraksi Narasi | : | A wide gap separates the rhetoric from the reality of protection in industrial countries. Antidumping is the current reality of that protection. Protectionist interests stretch the definition of dumping as far as they may to shelter actions against imports under the antidumping umbrella. This article is about antidumping, in particular about the history of antidumping regulation and its evolution under the GATT system into a major instrument of protection. The thesis is straight forward: antidumping is the fox put in charge of the henhouse-ordinary protection with a good public relations program. There is little in its history to suggest that the scope of antidumping was ever more particular that protecting home producers from import competition, and there is much to suggest that such protection was its intended scope. The article has three sections. The first looks into the origins of antidumping regulation, the second examines contemporary regulation (antidumping under the GATT), and the third summarizes the significance of the first two. |
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