| Nama Pengarang | : | - |
| Nama Majalah/Jurnal | : | The World Bank Research Observer |
| Volume / Nomor Edisi | : | - |
| Nomor Halaman | : | 113-150 |
| Abstraksi Narasi | : | This article examines the generation and management of municipal solid waste through the lens of economics. The authors estimate that the global burden of municipal solid waste amounted to 1.3 billion metric tons in 1990, or two-thirds of a kilogram of waste per person per day. Industrial countries account for a disproportionately high share of the world`s waste relative to their share pf world population, while developing countries account for a disproportionately high share of the world`s waste relative to their share of world income. Analyses across countries and over time reveal that the generation of municipal solid waste is positively related to variations in per capita income vary with population size among countries with comparable per capita income. Practices for collecting, processing, and disposing of municipal solid waste vary widely across countries, generally in accord with the nature of the waste stream and key environmental and economic features. The least efficient practices tend to be found in developing countries, creating serious threats to local environmental quality and public health. Although considerable evidence indicates that the generation and management of waste is sensitive to income and price variables, natural incentives to over-use common property and the presence of intergenerational externalities both suggest that private economic behavior will not yield socially optimal outcomes in this area. Community intervention may be need to promote the social good., with evidence accumulating in support of arrangements involving the participation of private firms. The authors` calculations also suggest that improvements made now in the handling of hazardous waste will be far less expensive in discounted terms than undoing in the future the damage being caused by current practices. Addressing these issues from a rational societal perspective will become increasingly urgent in the future, especially in the developing countries, where the authors project that municipal solid waste will increase at an annual rate of 2,7 percent through the year 2010. |
| Nama Pengarang | : | - |
| Nama Majalah/Jurnal | : | The World Bank Research Observer |
| Volume / Nomor Edisi | : | - |
| Nomor Halaman | : | 201-220 |
| Abstraksi Narasi | : | Demand for decentralization is strong throughout the world. But the benefits of decentralization are not as obvious as the standard theory of fiscal federalism suggests, and there are serious drawbacks that should be considered in designing any decentralization program. An analysis of these dangers makes it easier to understand some of the real choices. These choices are not so much whether to decentralize in general, but rather what functions to decentralize, in which sectors, and in which regions. In many cases the problem is not so much wether a certain service should be provided by a central, regional, or local government, but rather how to organize the joint production of the service by the various levels. In many-if not most-cases, such measures have an enormous potential and could, if properly designed and implemented, significantly improve the efficiency of the public sector. Decentralization measures are like some potent drugs, however: when prescribed for the relevant illness, at the appropriate moment and in the correct dose, they can have the desired salutary effect; but in the wrong circumstances, they can harm rather than heal. This article looks at some of the negative effects of decentralization in the hope that a better understanding of its dangers will contribute to a wiser application of potentially desirable decentralization programs. |
| Nama Pengarang | : | - |
| Nama Majalah/Jurnal | : | The World Bank Research Observer |
| Volume / Nomor Edisi | : | - |
| Nomor Halaman | : | 151-180 |
| Abstraksi Narasi | : | Deforestation, growing scarcity of tree products, and environmental degradation have created serious problems for rural land use in many developing countries. Agroforestry, a system in which woody perennials are grown on the same land as agricultural crops or livestock, has been increasingly enlisted in the campaign to meet these threats to the rural economy. Case studies of twenty-one agroforestry projects in six Central American and two Caribbean countries formed the empirical basis for the study described in this article. A focal point of analyses were the provitability of agroforestry for farmers as a crucial incentive to adoption. The findings indicate that many agroforestry practices are profitable under a broad range of conditions and are therefore likely to be widely applicable. Successful projects have worked with lokal communities, responding to local needs and preferences and offering farmers a broad basket of species and systems from which to choose. Demonstration plots and the use of paratechnicians have been low-cost and effective means of technology transfer, and applied research has been important in identifying techniques and practices suited to the region. Other findings have identified government regulation of tree harvesting and insecurity of tenure-though not lack of title in itself-as disincentives to adoption. |
| Nama Pengarang | : | - |
| Nama Majalah/Jurnal | : | The World Bank Research Observer |
| Volume / Nomor Edisi | : | - |
| Nomor Halaman | : | 247-254 |
| Abstraksi Narasi | : | - |
| Nama Pengarang | : | - |
| Nama Majalah/Jurnal | : | The World Bank Research Observer |
| Volume / Nomor Edisi | : | - |
| Nomor Halaman | : | 227-246 |
| Abstraksi Narasi | : | Policymakers in developing countries have long been troubled by the undesirable, but apparently unavoidable, choice between providing broad access to education and developing high-quality schools. Recent evidence, however, suggests that this is a bad way to think about human capital development. Grade repetition and high dropout rates lead to a significant waste of resources in many school systems. Students in quality schools, however, respond in ways that reduce such inefficiencies, perhaps even sufficiently to recoup immediately investments in quality. Promoting high-quality schools, however, is more difficult than many have thought, in part because research demonstrates that the traditional approach to providing quality-simply providing more inputs-is frequently ineffective. Existing inefficiencies are likely to be alleviated only by the introduction of substantially stronger performance incentives in shools and by more extensive experimentation and evaluation of educational programs and school organizations. Incentives, decentralized decisionmaking, and evaluation are alien terms to education, in both industrial and developing countries, but they hold the key to improvement that has eluded policymakers pursuing traditional practices. |
| Nama Pengarang | : | - |
| Nama Majalah/Jurnal | : | The World Bank Research Observer |
| Volume / Nomor Edisi | : | - |
| Nomor Halaman | : | 181-200 |
| Abstraksi Narasi | : | Since the mid-1980s, stock market activity has increased substantially in many developing countries. This article first examines the main characteristics of emerging stock markets and illustrates the evolution of equity prices in these markets during the last decade. It then discusses the reasons for the markets` growth and assesses the extent to which they have been affected by domestic policies and external factors. The authors discuss the likely benefits of these markets, the effects any abrupt correction in stock prices could have for the economy, and the ways in which these markets can be made more efficient. |
| Nama Pengarang | : | McLure, Charles E., Robert A. Feldman, Manmohan S. Kumar, Eric A. Hanushek, Michael R. Kremer, Dean Current, Ernst Lutz, Sara J. Scherr, Remy Prud'' homme, David N. Beede, David E. Bloom |
| Nama Majalah/Jurnal | : | The World Bank Research Observer |
| Volume / Nomor Edisi | : | - |
| Nomor Halaman | : | 221-226 |
| Abstraksi Narasi | : | - |
| Nama Pengarang | : | - |
| Nama Majalah/Jurnal | : | The World Bank Research Observer |
| Volume / Nomor Edisi | : | - |
| Nomor Halaman | : | 1-19 |
| Abstraksi Narasi | : | Most development objectives focus on the well-being of individuals. Policies are targeted to increase the percentage of individuals who avoid poverty, who can read, who are free from hunger and illness, or who can find gainful employment. Individual welfare, however, is based in large part on a complex set of interactions among family members. Until recently most policy analyses implicity viewed the household as having only one set preferences.This assumptions has been a powerful tool for understanding household behavior, such as the distribution of tasks and goods. But a growing body of evidence suggests that this view is an expedience that comes at considerable, and possibly avoidable, cost. The article argues that more effective policy instruments will emerge from analyzing the process by which households balance the diverse interests of their members. |
| Nama Pengarang | : | - |
| Nama Majalah/Jurnal | : | The World Bank Research Observer |
| Volume / Nomor Edisi | : | - |
| Nomor Halaman | : | 93-111 |
| Abstraksi Narasi | : | As developing countries become major consumers of the global supply of commercial energy, it is essential to understand the determinants of future energy prices. At the same time, many developing countries are relying on exports of their own natural resources-tropical hardwoods, oil, tin, gold, and other minerals-to generate badly needed foreign exchange. Government policies influence how much of resource is extracted today and how much is saved for the future. Flawed policies needlessly waste precious national wealth. |
| Nama Pengarang | : | - |
| Nama Majalah/Jurnal | : | The World Bank Research Observer |
| Volume / Nomor Edisi | : | - |
| Nomor Halaman | : | 21-52 |
| Abstraksi Narasi | : | Dual exchange rates and black markets for foreign exchange are common in developing countries, and a body of evidence is beginning to emerge on the effects that such parallel foreign exchange systems have on macroeconomic performance. This article presents a simple typology of parallel systems, discusses their emergence, and looks at why countries prefer these arrangements to the main alternatives. The article examines the ability of parallel markets to insulate international reserves and domestic prices from shocks to the balance of payments. Drawing on the findings from eight detailed case studies, the authors discuss the determination of the parallel premium in the short and long terms, the relationship between the premium and illegal transactions, and the fiscal effects of parallel rates. They compare the experiences of countries that have attempted to unify their foreign exchange markets and discuss the implications for policy alternatives. |
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